1.1 Molecules

describe the properties of some important biological molecules;

recall, recognise and identify the general formulae and structure of these molecules; understand their roles.

2.1 to 2.9

Water

understand its dipolar nature; understand formation of hydrogen bonds; understand the importance of water as a solvent;

understand other roles of water related to its high latent heat of vaporisation, specific heat capacity, density and surface tension.

2.3

2.4

Spread 2.3 covers the physical and chemical properties of water.

Spread 2.4 considers the biological significance of these properties.

Carbohydrates

understand that hexoses and pentoses are monosaccharides and have a role as monomers;

recall the structure and understand the roles of the monosaccharides a and b glucose, ribose and deoxyribose;

understand the roles of fructose and galactose;

understand that disaccharides and polysaccharides are composed of monomers joined by glycosidic bonds;

understand that condensation and hydrolysis reactions are involved in the synthesis and degradation of disaccharides and polysaccharides;

know the monomers of and understand the roles of the disaccharides sucrose, maltose and lactose;

2.6

Figure 1, spread 2.6 shows the structure of glucose.

The structure of ribose and deoxyribose are considered in spreads 2.6, 2.11 and 18.1. Figure 2, spread 18.1 shows the structural formula of deoxyribose; ribose has an additional oxygen atom attached to the carbon at position 2 in the diagram.

Figure 2, spread 2.6 shows condensation and hydrolysis reactions.

recall the structure and understand the roles of the polysaccharides starch (amylose and amylopectin), cellulose and glycogen; relate structure to function of these polysaccharides.

2.7

Lipids

understand the general nature of lipids as fats, oils and waxes;

recall the general structure of a triglyceride synthesised from glycerol and fatty acids; understand the formation of ester bonds;

understand the nature of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids;

2.8

Figure 1, spread 2.8 shows the formation of a trigylceride molecule.

describe the roles of lipids as energy stores, and, in protection, waterproofing, insulation and buoyancy;

understand the structure and properties of phospholipids and their role in the structure and properties of cell membranes.

2.8

See also spread 4.6 for a description of cell membranes and the role of phospholipids within them.

Proteins

understand the nature of amino acids as monomers in the formation of polypeptides and proteins; recall the general formula and general structure of amino acids (details of the structures and formulae of specific amino acids are not required);

2.8

Figure 1, spread 2.8 shows the general structure of an amino acid.

understand that amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form polypeptides; describe the formation of a peptide bond;

Figure 2, spread 2.8 shows peptide bond formation.

understand the meaning of the terms primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure and their importance in the structure of enzymes;

understand that condensation and hydrolysis reactions are involved in the synthesis and degradation of polypeptides and proteins;

2.10

See also chapter 3 for the structure and function of enzymes.

understand the role of ionic, hydrogen and disulphide bonds in the structure of proteins as illustrated by insulin and collagen;

understand the nature and roles of fibrous and globular proteins as illustrated by collagen and insulin.

See spread 2.2 for a description of ionic bonds, and spread 2.3 for a description of hydrogen bonds. Figure 4, spread 2.10 shows disulphide bond formation.

The structure of insulin is described in spread 8.2; that of collagen is described in 2.10.

Nucleic acids

understand that ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) are composed of mononucleotides;

2.11

recall the basic structure of a mononucleotide; thymine, uracil and cytosine as pyrimidines; adenine and guanine as purines;

understand that condensation reactions are involved in the formation of mononucleotides and polynucleotides (DNA and RNA);

18.1

Figures 2 and 3, spread 18.1 show the condensation reactions involved in the formation of mononucleotides and polynucleotides.

recall the structure and understand the roles of messenger and transfer RNA;

18.6 and 18.7

mRNA is considered in spread 18.6 and 18.7; tRNA in spread 18.7.

recall the structure of DNA; understand base pairing; understand the double helix;

18.1

understand the mechanism of replication of DNA (semi-conservative);

18.3

Figure 1(a) shows semi conservative replication.

understand the nature of the genetic code; understand that a gene is a sequence of bases on the DNA molecule which codes for a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain;

18.6

See also the appendix for the full code.

understand the processes of transcription and translation in the synthesis of proteins; understand that amino acid sequences are specified by DNA, and know the function of the ribosomes;

understand codons and anticodons in relation to messenger and transfer RNA;

18.7

18.8

18.7 deals with transcription.

18.8 deals with translation.

appreciate the Human Genome Project in the light of the structure and roles of nucleic acids; consider the spiritual, moral, ethical, social and cultural issues of this project.

Practical work to include qualitative and quantitative biochemical tests for starch, reducing and non-reducing sugars and proteins using iodine solution, Benedict’s reagent and biuret reagent, as appropriate.

19.6

App.

The human genome project is described in the Fact of Life box in spread 19.6 but the spiritual, moral, ethical, social and cultural issues of this project are not covered; students are advised to consult newspapers and science magazines, such as the New Scientist, for up-to-date discussions.

1.2 Enzymes

understand the structure of enzymes as globular proteins, and the concept of the active site and specificity;

understand that enzymes are catalysts which reduce activation energy;

3.2

See also 2.10 for a description of globular proteins.

understand how enzyme activity is affected by temperature, pH, substrate and enzyme concentrations;

3.3

understand active site-directed and non-active site-directed inhibition of enzyme action;

3.4

Active site-directed inhibition = competitive inhibition; non-active site-directed inhibition = non competitive inhibition.

have an appreciation of the commercial uses of enzymes as illustrated by pectinases in food modification and proteases in biological detergents;

3.7

discuss the advantages of the immobilisation of commercial enzymes, as illustrated by lactase;

3.6

Figure 2, spread 3.6 shows methods of enzyme immobilisation.

Practical work to include experiments to investigate the effects of temperature, pH and enzyme concentration on enzyme activity using suitable enzymes; illustrations of enzyme immobilisation using lactase; the use of pectinase in the production of fruit juice.

Practical details are not covered

1.3 Cellular organisation

Prokaryotic cells

describe the structure of a bacterial cell and its inclusions as illustrated by Escherichia coli;

17.3

See also figure 3, spread 4.4.

understand the roles of the cell wall, cell surface (plasma) membrane and its invaginations, flagella, bacterial chromosomes,

plasmids, glycogen granules and lipid droplets; recognise and identify structures in electron micrographs of bacterial cells.

21.2

Figure 1, spread 21.2 shows a ‘typical’ bacterial cell.

Eukaryotic cells

understand the organisation of eukaryotic cells as illustrated by a leaf palisade cell and a liver cell; recognise and identify the structure of these cells as revealed by light and electron microscopy;

4.1

4.3

4.4

Figure 2 shows a cheek cell as a typical animal cell; liver cells (spread 8.4) have a similar structure but have a high density of mitochondria.

understand the magnification and resolution that can be achieved using light and electron microscopy; interpret electronmicrographs and identify the organelles;

4.2

Electron micrographs occur throughout the book, but those in spread 4.4. are particularly relevant to this section.

describe the structure and understand the roles of the nucleus, nucleolus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, chloroplasts, mitochondria, ribosomes, centrioles and microtubules, the cellulose cell wall;

4.4

See spread 2.7 for a description of a cellulose cell wall.

See spread 5.1 for chloroplasts.

describe the structure and understand the properties and roles of the cell surface (plasma) membrane;

4.6

Figure 1, spread 4.6 shows the structure of the cell surface membrane.

Transport across membranes

understand how molecules and ions move into and out of cells;

understand the principles involved in passive transport by diffusion and facilitated diffusion;

4.7

Diffusion is described in relation to Fick’s law.

understand the principles of osmosis in terms of the diffusion of water molecules from a higher to a lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane; understand the factors which affect water potential;

4.9

Figure 1, spread 4.9 shows how osmosis takes place.

understand the principles involved in active transport; endocytosis and exocytosis.

4.8

Figure 3, spread 4.8 shows a possible mechanism of active transport.

Aggregations of cells

understand that tissues are aggregations of cells of common origin, structure and function, as illustrated by the tissues of a mesophytic leaf;

understand that the leaf and the liver are organs and composed of aggregations of tissues.

4.13

See spread 8.4 for a description of the liver as an organ.

See spread 13.1 for a description of a mesophytic leaf – see spread 22.15 for a definition of mesophyte.

Practical work to include the setting up and use of a light microscope to view slides of suitable tissues and cells. Students should be able to make accurate drawings of cells and plans of tissues and should also be able to use a suitable graticule to make measurements and understand the concept of scale in relation to their drawings.

App.

Advanced Biology is not a practical guide, but the appendix considers drawings and how to make measurements using a suitable graticule.

1.4 The cell cycle

understand the sequence of division of a nucleus following the replication of DNA during interphase;

4.10, 4.11

Chromosome structure

understand that chromosomes consist of DNA and histones in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells;

18.2

recall the replication of DNA; understand the role of the enzymes involved;

18.3

understand that a leaf palisade cell and a liver cell have a diploid chromosome number and have been produced by nuclear division followed by differentiation.

Differentiation is considered in spread 12.11; figure 3, spread 4.1 shows a leaf palisade cell; spread 8.4 describes a liver cell.

Mitosis

recall the structure of a chromosome;

18.2

understand the behaviour of chromosomes during the stages of the mitotic cell cycle; describe the events of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase;

understand the significance of mitosis in growth and replacement;

understand the significance of daughter nuclei with chromosomes identical in number and type;

4.11

Mitosis is summarized in figures 1 and 2.

understand that the production of new individuals involves the transfer of genetic information from parent to offspring;

understand that inherited information in the offspring is identical to that of the parent; understand the significance of mitosis in achieving this;

12.1

12.1 discusses general features of reproduction.

understand the nature of natural and artificial cloning in plants and animals.

Practical work to include preparation and staining of root tip squashes to recognise and study stages in mitosis using a light microscope.

18.10

Human cloning and cloning of domestic animals is considered in spread 18.10.

Note that asexual reproduction (spread 12.1) results in clones.

2B.1 Exchanges with the environment

understand what materials need to be exchanged; respiratory gases; nutrients; excretory products

Different exchange processes are dealt with separately in Advanced Biology: respiratory gases, mainly in Chapter 7; nutrients in chapter 9; and excretory products in chapter 8.

Exchange processes

understand the relationship of size and surface area to volume ratio;

understand the features of exchange surfaces which aid passive and active transport;

4.7

See also Fick’s Law, spread 4.7.

understand the special features of gas exchange surfaces;

7.1 and 7.3

Chapter 7 deals with gas exchange processes in humans, but many of the features apply generally.

understand the need for ventilation mechanisms.

7.2

Gas exchange in protozoa

understand how gas exchange is achieved in a protozoan.

4.7

Gas exchange in flowering plants

describe the external and internal structure of a mesophyte leaf;

understand the structure and roles of stomata and the mechanism of stomatal opening in terms of changes in ion concentrations leading to changes in turgidity; understand how gas exchange is achieved.

13.1 and 13.7

Gas exchange in humans

recall the structure of the thorax; understand the mechanism of ventilation, including the role of the pleural membranes;

7.1

understand how breathing is controlled; understand vital capacity and tidal volume;

7.2

recall the structure of alveoli and understand their role in gas exchange; explain the function of surfactants; know that breathing is controlled by the respiratory centre in the brain.

Practical work should include the use of simple respirometers.

7.3

See figures 2, spread 7.3 for surfactants.

Digestion and absorption

describe the structure of the alimentary canal in relation to digestion and absorption;

9.2

describe mastication and movement of food along the gut;

9.3

Figure 4, spread 9.3 shows peristalsis.

describe the histology of the ileum wall; understand the sources and effects of secretions concerned with the digestion of carbohydrates.

9.4

See also spread 2.6 for an account of hydrolysis of starch.

2B.2 Transport systems

understand the need for transport systems in relation to size and surface area to volume ratio; the concept of mass flow and the movement of molecules within organisms.

7.4

See also 4.7 and 4.13 for a discussion of multicellularity, and size and surface area to volume ratio.

Spread 13.10 considers mass flow in plants.

Transport in flowering plants

describe the structure of the vascular tissues; xylem tissue composed of vessels, tracheids, fibres and xylem parenchyma;

understand the role of vessels in relation to transport; phloem tissue composed of sieve tube elements, companion cells, phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma; the role of sieve tube elements and companion cells in relation to transport.

13.4

See also 13.1 for a figure of parenchyma.

Movement of water d

escribe the structure of a dicotyledonous root; understand the uptake of water and its transport across the root to the xylem;

13.3

understand the way in which water is moved through the plant; the apoplast, symplast and vacuolar pathways; the role of the endodermis;

13.6

Figure 3, spread 13.6, shows the various pathways.

understand the structure of vessels in relation to the cohesive and adhesive forces of water and their contribution to the movement of water through the plant;

describe the functioning and understand the roles of the transpiration stream; roles of stomata; understand the effect of different environmental conditions on the transpiration stream.

Practical work to include demonstrations and measurements of transpiration using a potometer; stomatal counts.

13.5

13.7

The transpiration stream and the mechanisms of transpiration is described in spread 13.5.

See also spread 2.4 for a description and explanation of the cohesive properties of water.

Method of measuring transpiration, and a discussion of the factors affecting transpiration rate, is covered in spread 13.5.

Movement of nutrients

understand the roles of diffusion and active transport in the uptake of mineral ions by roots; understand the transport of mineral ions through the plant;

13.8

understand the translocation of organic solutes; appreciate the difference between the transport of water and organic solutes;

relate the structure and arrangement of sieve tube elements, companion cells and transfer cells to the movement of organic solutes.

13.9

13.10

Figure 2, spread 13.10 shows mass flow.

Transport in mammals

understand the outline functions of the circulatory system in the transport of respiratory gases, metabolites, metabolic wastes and hormones; describe the double circulatory system;

7.4

describe the structure of the mammalian heart and coronary circulation;

7.5

Figure 2, spread 7.5 shows the coronary arteries, part of the coronary circulation.

understand the cardiac cycle; myogenic stimulation; understand how the cardiac cycle is coordinated;

7.6

describe the structure and roles of arteries, veins and capillaries.

7.4

Figure 2, spread 7.4 is a schematic diagram of the blood vessels.

Blood and body fluids

describe the composition of blood as plasma and blood cells, to include erythrocytes and leucocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes and lymphocytes);

7.8

Figure 1, spread 7.8, shows the major components of the blood.

describe the structure of erythrocytes and understand their role in transport;

7.8

understand the roles of leucocytes in phagocytosis and secretion of antibodies;

15.5 and 15.6

Spread 15.5 refers to phagocytes and lymphocytes, types of leucocytes. 15.6 describes antibodies.

understand the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide;

describe the roles of respiratory pigments (haemoglobin, fetal haemoglobin and myoglobin);

7.9

See also 7.10 for a discussion of the role of myoglobin; fetal haemoglobin is covered in spread 12.8.

understand and interpret dissociation curves of haemoglobin and the Bohr effect;

7.9

Figure 3, spread 7.9 shows dissociation curves and figure 4 shows the Bohr shift.

describe the interchange of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid, including the formation and reabsorption of tissue fluid.

Practical work to include the microscopic examination of stained blood films and the identification of cells.

7.11

Figure 2, spread 7.11 summarises the interchange of materials between blood, tissue fluid, and lymph

2B.3 Adaptations to the environment

understand that species are adapted to survive in particular environmental conditions.

22.14

Spread 22.14 discusses adaptation of camels and desert rats to dry conditions.

Structural adaptation

understand the relationship of the external features of organisms to the physical characteristics of a specific habitat;

describe xeromorphic adaptations in flowering plants; hydrophytes;

22.15

describe the structural and physiological adaptations shown by invertebrates to the varying oxygen concentrations found in fresh water;

describe specific examples of features to include external gills,

direct access to air, presence of respiratory pigment.

21.15

See also spread 23.9, figure 2 shows indicator species adapted to different levels of oxygen in the water. See also ‘Food for thought’, spread 7.9 for reference to haemoglobin in bloodworms, living in mud.

2B.4 Sexual reproduction

know that offspring result from the fusion of gametes, forming a zygote; understand that this fusion of gametes leads to genetic variation in offspring;

12.1

12.1 deals with general features of reproduction.

recall that gamete formation involves a reduction division (meiosis) and understand its significance as the division of a diploid nucleus to give haploid nuclei; understand the behaviour of chromosomes during the first and second divisions of meiosis, including chiasmata formation (names and details of stages of prophase are not required);

4.12

Figures 1 and 2 in spread 4.12 deal with meiosis.

understand that haploid and diploid phases occur in the lifecycles

of organisms.

See also spread 21.6 for alternation of haploid and diploid phases in the life cycle of plants; and Food for Thought, spread 21.9.

Reproduction in flowering plants

describe the structure and functions of the principal parts of an insect-pollinated dicotyledonous flower and a grass;

14.1

describe pollination and the events leading to fertilisation;

understand the adaptations related to insect and wind pollination;

describe and appreciate the significance of the mechanisms for ensuring cross-pollination; protandry, protogyny and dioecious plants.

14.3

Figure 3, spread 14.3, shows how primroses are structurally adapted to increase the chances of cross pollination.

Reproduction in humans

describe the structure and functions of the male and female reproductive systems;

12.2

Figures 1 and 2, spread 12.2 show the male and female reproductive systems.

describe the production of gametes in oogenesis and spermatogenesis;

12.3

recall the events in the menstrual cycle; understand the roles of luteinising hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, oestrogen, progesterone;

12.4

describe the transfer of male gametes leading to fertilisation;

12.5

describe implantation; understand the functions of the placenta in relation to the development of the embryo;

12.7 and 12.8

12.7 deals with implantation; 12.8 deals with the placenta.

understand birth and lactation, and the roles of oxytocin and prolactin.

12.9 and 12.10

12.9 deals with birth; 12.10 with parental care (including lactation)

Practical work to include an experimental investigation into the factors affecting the growth of pollen grains; make observations on preparations of insect testis squash.

Practical activities are not covered

2H.1 Exchanges with the environment

appreciate that materials exchanged with the environment include respiratory gases, nutrients and excretory products.

Different exchange processes are dealt with separately in Advanced Biology; respiratory gases mainly in chapter 7; nutrients in chapter 9; and excretory products in chapter 8

Exchanges surfaces

describe the features of exchanges surfaces which aid passive and active transport; identify and describe the histology of epithelia revealed by light and electron microscopy; squamous epithelium (alveolus), cuboidal epithelium (nephron), columnar epithelium (ileum).

4.7

The ‘typical animal cell’ shown in figure 2, spread 4.1 is a cheek cell, an epithelial cell.

Spread 4.3 considers organelles found in typical animal cells, including epithelial cells.

Features of exchange surfaces are discussed in spread 7.3 (alveolus), 8.6 (nephrons), and 9.5 (ileum).

Breathing

describe the structure of the breathing system and the mechanism of ventilation;

understand the principle of a spirometer and interpret spirometer data;

7.2

Figure 2, spread 7.2 shows spirometer; figure 3 shows spirometer data.

understand the effects of physical activity and increase in carbon dioxide concentration on breathing rate and volume.

7.10

Practical work to include the use of simple apparatus to estimate vital capacity; variation of breathing rates with physical activity and quantitative comparisons of inspired and expired air.

Practical activities are not included

Gas exchange

describe the characteristics of alveoli as surfaces involved in gas exchange; describe the effects of smoking on ventilation and gas exchange; understand the effects of smoking in relation to pregnancy; describe the causes and effects of carbon monoxide;

explain the origin of carbon monoxide from car exhausts and tobacco smoke.

7.3

16.6

Alveolus structure is shown in figure 1, spread 7.3.

Note that carbon monoxide is a major constituent of car exhaust fumes, it forms due to the incomplete combustion of carbon and carbon compounds.

Digestion and absorption

describe the structure of the alimentary canal in relation to digestion and absorption;

9.2

describe mastication and movement of food along the gut;

9.3

Figure 4 spread 9.3 shows peristalsis.

describe the histology of the ileum wall; understand the sources and effects of secretions concerned with the digestion of carbohydrates.

9.4

See also spread 2.6 for an account of hydrolysis of starch.

2H.2 Transport of materials

Circulation

understand the functions of the circulatory system for the transport of respiratory gases, metabolites, metabolic wastes and hormones.

7.4

The circulatory system

describe the structure of the human heart and coronary circulation;

7.5

understand the cardiac cycle; myogenic stimulation; understand how the cardiac cycle is coordinated;

7.6

Figure 3, spread 7.6 shows a normal ECG.

describe a normal ECG and understand the role of artificial pacemakers;

7.7

Figure 1, spread 7.7 shows an artificial pacemaker.

describe the structure and roles of arteries, veins and capillaries.

7.4

Figure 2, spread 7.4 shows the structure of the blood vessels.

Practical work to include investigation of the effects of physical activity on pulse rate.

7.7

Details of practical activities not covered

Figure 2, spread 7.7 describes how to check pulse rate.

Blood and body fluids

describe the composition of blood as plasma and blood cells, to include erythrocytes and leucocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes and lymphocytes);

7.8

Figure 1, spread 7.8 shows the major components of blood.

describe the structure of erythrocytes and understand their role in transport;

7.8

understand the roles of leucocytes in phagocytosis and secretion of antibodies;

15.5 and 15.6

Spread 15.5 refers to phagocytes, types of Leucocytes.

15.6 describes antibodies.

understand the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide;

describe the roles of respiratory pigments (haemoglobin, fetal haemoglobin and myoglobin);

7.9

See also 7.10 for a discussion of the role of myoglobin; fetal haemoglobin is covered in spread 12.8.

understand and interpret dissociation curves of haemoglobin and the Bohr effect;

7.9

Figure 3, spread 7.9 show the dissociation curves, and figure 4 shows the Bohr effect.

describe the interchange of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid, including the formation and reabsorption of tissue fluid and the formation of lymph.

Practical work to include the microscopic examination of stained blood films and the identification of cells.

7.11

Figure 2, spread 7.11 summarises the interchange of materials between blood, tissue fluid, and lymph.

2H.3 Human ecology

Adaptations to extreme environments

understand the effects of extremes of environmental temperature

and of life at high altitude.

22.16

Extremes of temperature

recall normal body temperature and appreciate diurnal variation;

8.9

Spread 11.14 deals with human behavioural rhythms and diurnal variations of body temperature.

understand the structural, physiological and behavioural mechanisms of temperature regulation, including the structure and roles of the skin, and the roles of thermoreceptors and the hypothalamus;

understand the causes and effects of heat stress, including salt loss, heat cramp, moderate and severe dehydration;

8.10

8.11

Heat stress is mentioned in spread 8.10, but salt loss and heat cramp are not dealt with in detail. See also Fact of Life, spread 2.4 for a description of dehydration effects.

appreciate the differences between acclimatisation in a visitor and adaptation in a native;

22.16

understand the causes and effects of cold stress, including cold injury, trench foot and frostbite, wind chill and exposure leading to hypothermia.

8.10

Cold stress is mentioned in spread 8.10, and hypothermia described, but cold injury, trench foot and frostbite, wind chill and exposure are not dealt with.

High altitude

describe the environmental conditions in high mountains, including low atmospheric pressure, low temperature, low humidity, high winds and increased solar radiation;

describe the physiological effects of high altitude including hypoxia, hyperventilation, changes in lung volume and pulmonary diffusing capacity, increased red cells and haemoglobin concentration, initial increase in cardiac output;

describe the effects of high altitude stress, including the general symptoms of mountain sickness, increased secretion of antidiuretic hormone, redistribution of body fluids, and impairment of mental reactions;

appreciate the differences between acclimatisation in a visitor and adaptation in a native.

22.16

See also chapter 7 for an account of gaseous exchange and circulatory system in humans, ventilation and lung volumes (7.2), pulmonary diffusion (7.3), red cells (7.8), haemoglobin (7.9), and cardiac output (7.7) are covered in this chapter.

Increased secretion of ADH will tend to reduce the volume of urine, helping to conserve water (see spread 8.8).

2H.4 Human reproduction and development

Reproduction

describe the structures and functions of the male and female reproductive systems;

12.2

Figures 1 and 2, spread 12.2 show the male and female reproductive systems.

recall that gamete formation involves a reduction division (meiosis) and understand its significance as the division of a diploid nucleus to give haploid nuclei; understand the behaviour of chromosomes during the first and second divisions of meiosis including chiasmata formation (names and details of stages of prophase are not required);

4.12

Figures 1 and 2, spread 4.12 show meiosis.

describe the production of gametes in oogenesis and spermatogenesis;

12.3

describe and understand the events in the menstrual cycle; understand the roles of luteinising hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, oestrogen and progesterone;

describe the transfer of male gametes leading to fertilisation;

12.4

describe implantation; understand the functions of the placenta in relation to the development of the embryo; understand the role of the placenta in controlling the passage of potentially harmful substances, illustrated by reference to nicotine, alcohol, heroin and viruses such as HIV and rubella;

12.7

12.8

The role of the placenta in controlling the passage of potentially harmful substances is mentioned, but not in detail.

describe the stages of birth and understand the control by fetal and maternal hormones;

12.9

Figure 2, spread 12.9 shows the hormonal control of uterine contractions during birth.

describe colostrum and milk production; understand the control of milk production by prolactin and oxytocin; understand the importance of colostrum.

12.10

Practical work to include microscopic examination of the histology of ovary and testis.

Although practical activities are not covered in Advanced Biology, figure 1 and figure 2 in spread 12.3 show the structure of the gonads.

Development

interpret human growth curves, including changes in the proportions of body parts from birth to maturity;

12.11

describe the effects of ageing on the skeletal system, illustrated by osteoarthritis and osteoporosis; on the cardiovascular system and reproductive systems, illustrated by the menopause and HRT.

16.4

12.4

See Fact of Life, spread 12.4 for a short account of HRT.

3.1 Modes of nutrition

Autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition

understand the basic principles of autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition (no details of photosynthesis or digestion are required).

9.1

Holozoic nutrition

understand that holozoic nutrition involves the feeding on organic matter from the bodies of other organisms (no details of digestion are required);

9.1

understand the adaptations of herbivores and carnivores to their diet, as illustrated by a named ruminant and a named carnivore.

9.9 and 9.10

9.9 deals with carnivores; 9.10 with herbivores.

Saprobiontic and parasitic nutrition

understand saprobiontic and parasitic modes of nutrition, as illustrated by Rhizopus and Taenia (details of their life histories are not required).

17.5

21.11

Definition of saprobiontic in spread 9.1;

Rhizopus nutrition is discussed in 17.5.

Taenia and adaptations of parasitic flatworms are covered in spread 21.11.

Mutualistic nutrition

understand a mutualistic mode of nutrition as illustrated by Rhizobium with Papilionaceae and cellulose-digesting organisms in ruminants.

21.12

9.10

Rhizobium is a nitrogen-fixing bacterium found in root nodules (spread 21.12.)

3.2 Ecosystems

recall the terms biosphere, ecosystem, habitat, producers, consumers and decomposers, trophic levels, food chains and food webs.

22.1

22.2 and 22.3

22.1 deals with biosphere;

22.2 defines ecosystem, habitat, producers, consumers and decomposers;

22.3 defines trophic level, food chains and food webs.

3.3 Energy flow

recall that carbon dioxide and water are converted to glucose and oxygen, using energy from sunlight in photosynthesis and that light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll;

5.1

Spread 5.1 gives an overview of photosynthesis.

understand the role of producers, consumers and decomposers in food chains and food webs;

describe food chains quantitatively, using pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy;

22.3

Figures 3, 4 and 5, spread 22.3 show pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy

understand how energy is transferred through food chains and food webs and why energy is lost between trophic levels;

understand the terms productivity, gross primary production and net primary production;

Practical work to include the estimation of pyramids of numbers and of fresh biomass using simple techniques for the collection and determination of fresh mass

22.4

Gross primary production and net primary production are defined in spread 22.4.

3.4 Recycling of nutrients

recall the stages in the water cycle;

23.7

Figure 1, 23.7 shows the water cycle

describe the stages in the carbon cycle and understand the role of microorganisms, carbon sinks and carbonates in the cycle;

22.13

describe the stages in the nitrogen cycle and understand the role of microorganisms in the cycle as illustrated by decomposers, nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter), nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium, Azotobacter), and denitrifying bacteria (Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus);

23.12

understand how the carbon and nitrogen cycles are disrupted by human activities

See soil management (spread 23.1), deforestation (23.5), air pollution (23.6) and freshwater pollution (23.7) for effects of human activities on the carbon and nitrogen cycles.

3.5 Energy resources

understand how energy resources can be managed in a sustainable manner;

23.5

Sustainable management of forest resources for fuel etc. is discussed in spread 23.5.

describe the use of fossil fuels as illustrated by coal and oil;

23.13

Uses of fossil fuels are mentioned in spread 23.13, but not discussed in detail.

describe the use of renewable energy sources, as illustrated by fast-growing biomass, gasohol from sugar, biogas from domestic and agricultural wastes.

17.11

Spread 17.11 deals with biogas and gasohol.

3.6 Human influences on the environment

discuss the causes and effects of deforestation and desertification, with particular emphasis on communities, biodiversity and sustainable management;

23.5

See also spread 22.11 for an account of species diversity.

describe the ecological impact of human activity on the environment, to include atmospheric pollution (acid rain and greenhouse effect) and water pollution (effect of raw sewage and fertilisers on water quality, oxygen content and biodiversity, eutrophication, algal blooms);

23.6

23.7

Atmospheric pollution is covered in spread 23.6; freshwater pollution in 23.7.

be aware of European legislation to control air and water quality.

European legislation on air quality and water quality is not dealt with as this is changing all the time; students will need access to up-to-date legislation, e.g. through the Internet.

4.1 Metabolic pathways

understand the concept of a metabolic pathway as a sequence of enzyme-controlled reactions; appreciate the roles of enzymes in the control of such pathways, illustrated by oxidoreductases and hydrolases; anabolism and catabolism;

3.1 to 3.5

See 3.2 for a description of the effect of enzymes; spread 3.4 explains how metabolic pathways can be controlled by end-product inhibition.

3.5 describes the action of oxidoreductases and hydrolases.

understand the significance of ATP in metabolism as the immediate supply of energy for biological processes.

2.11

Cellular respiration

describe the conversion of monosaccharides to pyruvate during glycolysis; the phosphorylation of hexose molecules; breakdown to glycerate 3-phosphate (GP); production of reduced coenzyme (NADH + H+) and ATP (details of intermediate compounds and reactions, other than those specified, are not required).

6.2

Aerobic respiration

understand that during the complete oxidation of pyruvate the events of the Krebs cycle result in the production of carbon dioxide, more reduced coenzyme (NADH + H⁺) and ATP (detailed knowledge of the intermediate stages in the Krebs cycle is not required);

6.3

understand the role of the electron-transport chain in generating ATP (oxidative phosphorylation); understand the role of molecular oxygen as a hydrogen acceptor forming water;

6.4

recall the structure of a liver mitochondrion; identify inner and outer membranes and the inter membranal space;

describe and understand the role of mitochondria as the site of Krebs cycle and electron-transport chain; understand the location of enzymes and electron carriers; understand the role of oxidoreductases.

Liver mitochondria are typical animal mitochondria, one of which is shown in figure 4, spread 4.4. The intermembranal space in the fluid-filled compartment between the inner and outer membranes is shown (figure 3, spread 6.4).

Anaerobic respiration

understand the situations in which the pyruvate formed in glycolysis may not undergo complete oxidation; formation of lactic acid in muscle; formation of ethanol in yeast;

6.2

compare and explain the differences in the yields of ATP from the complete oxidation of glucose and from the fermentation of glucose to lactic acid or ethanol.

6.4

6.4 deals with the efficiency of ATP production.

Practical work to include experiments to illustrate the role of hydrogen acceptors using a redox indicator (such as methylene blue or tetrazolium chloride).

Practical work is not covered

4.2 Regulation of the internal environment

understand the concept of homeostasis and its importance in maintaining the body in a state of dynamic equilibrium;

understand that homeostasis allows organisms to be independent of the external environment;

understand the concept and roles of feedback mechanisms.

8.1

Mammalian kidney

understand the role of the mammalian kidney in osmoregulation and nitrogenous excretion; describe the structure of the mammalian kidney; describe and understand the function of the nephrons;

8.5 to 8.8

Figure 2, spread 8.5 shows the structure of a mammalian kidney

understand the production of urea in the liver from excess amino acid; (details of the ornithine cycle are not required);

describe the process of ultrafiltration; understand the selective reabsorption of water and solutes; the counter-current multiplier;

8.2

See figure 3, spread 8.2 for the production of urea.

understand how the control of the water and solute content of the blood is achieved; the role of osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus;

the pituitary gland; the action of antidiuretic hormone; the principle of negative feedback.

8.8

Regulation of blood glucose

understand the factors which lead to variation in blood glucose levels; the roles of insulin, glucagon and adrenaline in the control of blood glucose levels; the role of the liver in glucose-glycogen metabolism.

8.2

See also 8.4 for a description of the role of the liver.

Response to changes in the external environment

understand the need for the detection of external stimuli;

the concept of sensory receptors, illustrated by the detection of light in flowering plants by phytochrome pigments and in animals by the retinal pigments in the mammalian eye.

10.1

14.12

10.12

14.12 deals with phytochromes and flowering.

10.12 deals with retinal pigments.

Chemical coordination in animals

understand the nature of mammalian hormones; the principles of hormonal action and control as illustrated by the action of insulin and glucagon in the regulation of the blood glucose level, antidiuretic hormone and reproductive hormones; the principle of negative feedback.

8.2

8.8

8.1

Glucagon and insulin are covered in spread 8.2.

ADH is covered in spread 8.8;

Negative feedback is covered in spread 8.1.

Reproductive hormones are covered in chapter 12, see particularly 12.4 and 12.9.

Nervous coordination in mammals

appreciate the differences between nervous and hormonal coordination;

describe the structure and functions of sensory, relay and effector neurones; the role of Schwann cells and myelination;

10.1

understand the nature of the nerve impulse; describe the propagation of action potentials in terms of changes in the

permeability of the membrane to sodium ions, resulting in a wave of depolarisation propagating an action potential;

10.4 to 10.5

10.4 describes how a nerve impulse is set up;

10.5 describes transmission.

describe the structure and functions of a synapse; understand the role of acetylcholine as a transmitter substance; post-synaptic potentials;

10.6

10.6 deals with the synapse.

understand the effects of drugs on synaptic transmission, as illustrated by nicotine.

16.6

Practical work to include reaction time experiments; microscopic

examination of the histology of the spinal cord

Practical work is not covered

The central nervous system

describe the gross structure of the brain and spinal cord;

describe the location and functions of the medulla, cerebellum, hypothalamus and cerebral hemispheres;

10.7 and 10.13

Figure 2, spread 10.7, shows the spinal cord; spread 10.13 deals with the brain.

describe the functioning of a spinal reflex arc and the types of neurone involved; understand the value of such reflexes in response to changes in the external environment.

11.8

Figure 2, spread 11.8 shows a reflex arc.

Options

Students are requested to select one Option from the following list:

A Microbiology and biotechnology

B Food science

C Human health and fitness.

A.1 Diversity of microorganisms

describe the general characteristics of representatives of the following groups of microorganisms, illustrated by the examples named in each group.

Bacteria

recall the structure of a bacterial cell and its inclusions, as illustrated by Escherichia coli;

17.3

Figure 1, spread 17.3 shows the structure of E. coli. See also figure 3, spread 4.4 and figure 1, spread 21.2.

understand that cell structure is a means of classifying bacteria;

describe and understand the use of Gram staining in identifying bacteria;

17.2

17.2 deals with classification of bacteria, 17.4 describes gram staining.

understand that bacteria are agents of infection, invading and destroying host tissues, producing toxins; describe the production of exotoxins (Staphylococcus) and endotoxins (Salmonella), and the invasion of host tissue (Mycobacterium tuberculosis).

15.9

15.3

15.9 deals with Staphylococcus;

15.3 deals with Salmonella and Mycobacterium tuberculosis; see also 17.3 and 17.4.

Practical work to include use of Gram staining in the identification of bacteria.

Practical work is not covered

Fungi (yeasts and moulds)

describe the general characteristics of fungi; identify the differences in structure between yeasts and moulds as illustrated by Saccharomyces and Penicillium.

21.5

17.6

Fungal characteristics are described in 21.5.

Saccharomyces and Penicillium are the subject of spread 17.6, see also 17.5 for an account of other moulds.

Viruses

understand that the classification is based on virus structure and nucleic acid types as illustrated by l (lambda) phage (DNA), tobacco mosaic virus (RNA) and human immunodeficiency virus (RNA retrovirus);

17.1

See also spread 15.2 for an account of human immunodeficiency virus.

understand that viruses are agents of infection; the nature of host cell specificity; describe the cell infection cycle and latency as illustrated by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

15.2

A.2 Culture techniques

describe the essential nutrients (carbon sources, nitrogen sources, minerals and growth factors) appropriate to the growth of heterotrophic microorganisms;

17.4

Culture techniques and requirements for growth are not covered in detail.

understand the environmental influences of temperature, oxygen level and pH on growth.

Requirements for growth

describe the essential nutrients (carbon sources, nitrogen sources, minerals and growth factors) appropriate to the growth of heterotrophic microorganisms;

understand the environmental influences of temperature, oxygen level and pH on growth.

17.7

Methods for culturing

understand the principles and techniques involved in culturing microorganisms; describe the use of different media (solid and liquid media, selective media, indicator media);

17.4

See also Appendix.

describe the use of fermenters (bioreactors) for the production of mycoprotein and antibiotics; describe and understand the differences between batch and continuous fermentation;

17.7

Fermentation of Penicillium is included in spread 17.7; Mycoprotein production is described in spread 17.9.

understand that industrial processes involve the need for aseptic entry of material, culture inoculants, media, aeration, temperature, pH, agitation, product recovery; describe how culture conditions may be controlled.

17.9

Practical work to include preparation and sterilisation of media, agar plate pouring and inoculation using sterile wire loops, pipettes and spreaders; the investigation of the use of different carbon and nitrogen sources for growth using cultures on agar plates or in liquid culture.

Practical work is not fully covered

See Appendix.

Growth of cultures

understand the stages of growth of microorganisms in culture;

describe and understand diauxic growth; describe and understand the production of secondary metabolites;

describe methods of measuring culture growth as illustrated by cell counts, dilution plating, mass and optical methods (turbidity);

construct growth curves and calculate growth rate constants.

Practical work to include the use of these methods to investigate the growth of a suitable microorganism in liquid culture.

App.

See also spread 17.4 which describes serial dilution, spread 22.6 which describes bacteria growth curves.

Calculation of growth rate constants is not covered.

A.3 Use of microorganisms in biotechnology

Food and drink

describe and understand the processes involved in lactic acid fermentation leading to the production of yoghurt;

17.8

describe the processes involved in fermentation by yeast in brewing and dough production; understand the metabolic processes involved;

17.10

describe the production of mycoprotein.

Practical work to include a study of the optimal conditions (eg temperature, pH, nutrients) necessary for yoghurt production or for fermentation by yeast in brewing or dough production.

17.9

Medical applications

describe the production of antibiotics, illustrated by penicillin from Penicillium;

understand the effects of antibiotics (penicillin) on bacterial growth; understand antibiotic resistance and the reasons for its spread.

17.7

See also spread 15.9 for an account of antibiotics and 20.5 for an explanation of antibiotic resistance.

B.1 Food and diet

Balanced diet

recall the sources and roles of nutrients required in a balanced diet, including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, mineral ions, dietary fibre and water;

9.7

understand the nutritional requirements with reference to energy, total fat, polyunsaturated and saturated fat, dietary fibre, sodium and sugars;

understand variations in energy requirements in relation to basal metabolic rate, lean body mass, thermogenesis and different physical activities including exercise.

9.6

9.8

See also 2.8 for a description of saturated and unsaturated fats. See table 1, spread 9.8, for reference to the function of sodium.

Under-nutrition

recall the effects of lack of protein, iron, calcium and vitamin C (ascorbic acid); describe the effects of lack of vitamin A (retinol);

explain the molecular basis of scurvy in terms of the hydroxylation of collagen; understand that the absorption of irons is influenced by: the source of the iron (haem or non-haem), the presence of inhibitors or enhances of absorption, the amount of iron already stored in the body;

9.7

9.8

16.10

See also 16.6 for reference to vitamin C and smoking.

Scurvy is not described in terms of the hydroxylation of collagen.

describe and understand protein-calorie malnutrition, anorexia nervosa and bulimia.

16.9

16.9 deals with anorexia nervosa and bulimia.

Over-nutrition

understand the causes and effects of overweight and obesity;

calculate body mass index (BMI);

16.9

understand the possible relationships between diet and the incidence of coronary heart disease (saturated and unsaturated fats, fibre, sodium), diseases of the colon (fibre) and mature onset diabetes mellitus;

understand the relationship between restricted energy intake, physical activity and weight loss; understand the dangers of very low calorie and restricted diets.

Practical work to include determination of the calorific values of simple foods using a calorimeter; estimation of subcutaneous fat by skin fold measurements.

8.3

16.9

Coronary heart disease is covered in spread 16.7 and 16.8.

Mature onset diabetes is defined in spread 8.3 as late-onset diabetes.

The importance of fibre is considered in spread 9.7, but diseases of the colon are not covered.

See also spread 9.6 for an account of energy and food.

B.2 Food additives

understand the reasons for the use of additives, illustrated by reference to named examples where indicated.

Sweeteners

understand the use of natural and artificial sweeteners in food processing, illustrated by sucrose and aspartame;

compare the relative sweetness of different naturally occurring sugars (sucrose, fructose, glucose);

App.

The appendix mentions sweeteners, but does not describe them fully.

Kent, M (1997) Food and Fitness, Oxford University Press, covers these topics fully.

understand the use of the enzymes glucose isomerase and amyloglucosidase in the processing of food;

19.3

understand the nature of lactose intolerance and the use of lactose-reduced milk.

The symptoms of lactose intolerance, a condition due to lack of the enzyme lactase, is described in 19.3 in relation to cats, the symptoms are similar in humans. Lactose reduced milk is milk treated with immobilised lactase enzyme to break down lactose to its constituents glucose and galactose (see spread 3.6).

Other additives

understand the reasons for the use of colourings in the processing of food; distinguish between the use of natural colourings, such as beta carotene, and artificial colourings, such as sunset yellow and tartrazine; describe the problems associated with the use of artificial colourings;

understand the reasons for the use of antioxidants in the preservation of foods, as illustrated by ascorbic acid and tocopherol;

9.8

Antioxidants are defined in spread 9.8

distinguish between the use of flavourings, such as vanilla, and flavour enhancers, such as salt and monosodium glutamate;

App.

The appendix lists food additives.

understand the reasons for the use of preservatives, such as sulphites; understand the possible problems associated with their use.

Practical work to include investigations of the perception of sweetness in drinks or foods.

App.

B.3 Food storage

Postharvest changes

understand that metabolic processes continue after harvesting;

describe and understand ripening and the development of sweetness in apples, and colour development and softening of tissues in tomatoes;

explain the effects of continued respiration and loss of water in fruit and vegetables.

Practical work to include quantitative estimation of sugars and ascorbic acid at various stages of storage.

App.

Post harvest changes to apple and tomatoes are not covered.

Short- and long-term storage

understand the principles of storage in relation to maintaining quality of food and avoiding spoilage by microorganisms;

understand the factors which affect the growth and multiplication of microorganisms in food;

understand the effects of modified atmosphere storage on respiration and delay in ripening;

App.

The appendix refers to storage, but does not cover the topic fully.

understand the differences between short- and long-term storage as illustrated by the pasteurisation and sterilisation of milk.

17.3

Pasteurisation and sterilisation are described in 17.3.

Packaging

explain the reasons for choice of packaging materials; understand the use of plastic films, shrink packs, vacuum packs; understand the modification of the atmosphere within the pack.

App.

Packaging is mentioned in the Appendix but the topic is not covered fully.

Practical work to include investigations of weight loss in packaged foods; resazurin test, methylene blue test and turbidity test in relation to milk of different ages and the effectiveness of pasteurisation and sterilisation.

Practical work is not covered in detail

The Appendix describes tests for the effectiveness of pasteurisation and sterilisation.

B.4 Biotechnology and food production

Fermentations

understand that microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) can be used to modify foods, as illustrated by the conversion of raw cabbage to sauerkraut, milk to yoghurt and soya beans to tofu and soy sauce;

explain the changes in pH in relation to storage;

17.8

17.8 includes a description of yoghurt manufacture.

explain the role of yeast in breadmaking; understand the effect of ascorbic acid on the rising of dough; describe and understand the role of yeast in winemaking.

17.10

Bread, beer, wine, tofu, and soy sauce are described in spread 17.10.

Practical work to include quantitative investigations of the changes in foods during the process of fermentation.

Practical work is not covered

C.1 Body systems

Cardiovascular system

understand the histology of cardiac muscle;

recall the structure of the mammalian heart and myogenic stimulation;

11.3

understand how the cardiac cycle is controlled, the roles of respiratory gases, control centres in the medulla, sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves;

7.6

understand the roles of the carotid sinus, aortic and Bainbridge reflexes;

7.7

understand the use of artificial pacemakers in the treatment of heart disease;

See figure 1, spread 7.7 for a x-radiograph revealing an artificial pacemaker.

recall the roles of leucocytes in phagocytosis and secretion of antibodies;

15.6 and 15.7

understand the roles of lymphocytes in the immune response;

active and passive immunity.

15.8

Practical work should include the study of prepared slides of cardiac tissue.

Practical work is not covered

Pulmonary system

recall the structure of the breathing system and the mechanisms of ventilation;

understand the histology of lung tissue;

understand how the ventilation mechanism is controlled; the roles of respiratory gases; control centres in the medulla, stretch receptors and cranial nerves.

Practical work to include the study of prepared slides of lung tissue.

7.2

The histology of lung tissue is not covered.

See figure 4, spread 7.2 for control of ventilation.

Musculo-epithelial system

understand the structure of compact bone and a synovial joint;

11.2 and 11.3

11.2 considers compact bone, 11.3 considers a synovial joint.

understand the structure and histology of striated muscle;

11.4

See figure 1(c) for a photomicrograph of striated muscle.

understand the structure and role of fast and slow muscle fibres;

roles of actin, myosin, calcium ions and ATP in muscle contraction;

11.5

11.5 covers the sliding filament theory of muscle action.

understand the structure and role of the neuromuscular junction.

Figure 3, spread 11.4 shows a neuromuscular junction.

Practical work to include the study of prepared slides of striated muscle tissue and the effect of ATP on the contraction of muscle fibres.

Lymphatic system

describe the structure of the lymphatic system, vessels, glands and connections with the cardiovascular system;

understand the formation and content of lymph; the structure and role of lymph nodes in the immune response.

7.11

See also 15.5 for an account of the immune system.

C.2 Exercise physiology

Exercise and the cardiovascular system

recall the roles of erythrocytes, haemoglobin and myoglobin;

7.8, 7.9, 7.10

7.8 describes the components of blood; 7.9 focuses on haemoglogin; 7.10 describes the role of myoglobin.

describe the effect of skeletal muscle contraction on venous blood flow;

know that cardiac output is a function of heart rate and stroke volume;

understand the effect exercise has on cardiac output.

Practical work to include investigation of the effects of physical activity on pulse rate and blood pressure.

7.7

skeletal muscle contraction improves blood flow by squeezing blood along veins (spread 7.4).

Exercise and the pulmonary system

recall the meaning of the terms vital capacity and tidal volume;

7.2

understand the effect of exercise on breathing rate, tidal volume and residual volume;

know that minute volume (V_E) is a function of the breathing rate and tidal volume;

understand that ventilation uses oxygen and glucose;

describe the effect of training on ventilation efficiency.

Practical work to include the use of simple apparatus to estimate vital capacity and variation of breathing with physical activity.

7.10

See also figure 3, spread 7.2.

Note that “ventilation rate = tidal volume x number of breaths per minute”, is the same as “minute volume (VE) is a function of breathing rate and tidal volume”.

The effect of training on ventilation efficiency is mentioned in spread 7.10, but not discussed fully; see also spread 20.16 for a discussion of the effects of altitude training.

Exercise and the musculo-epithelial system

recall the processes of aerobic and anaerobic respiration;

6.1 to 6.4

understand the role of muscle spindles in muscle contraction;

11.7

Figure 4, spread 11.7 which shows a muscle spindle orgon.

understand the speed force and fatigue characteristics of motor units; the relationship between muscle structure and strength and the response of muscle to training;

understand the role of lactic acid in the production and elimination of an oxygen debt.

11.5

The effects of training on muscle is not discussed fully, but the relationship between type of athletic activity and type of muscle fibre is mentioned in spread 11.4

Training

understand the nutritional requirements of a training programme;

understand the principles of aerobic training and its effect on cardiac output and oxygen transport;

7.7

The effects of regular aerobic exercise are mentioned, but the principles of training, such as specificity and progressive overload are not covered.

describe the principles and understand the effects of anaerobic conditioning and the role of creatine phosphate.

11.4

Anaerobic conditioning is not considered. Creatine phosphate (= phospho creatine) is a high-energy compound which is used in the anaerobic synthesis of ATP during the first 10 seconds of an explosive burst of activity.

Note that tolerance to lactate/lactic acid increases with regular anaerobic training, such as short-distance interval training.

Practical work to include an investigation of the effect of a training programme.

Practical work, such as training, not covered

C.3 Human disorders

describe the causes and understand the treatment of the cardiovascular disorders of atherosclerosis, hypertension and coronary heart disease;

16.7 and 16.8

describe the causes and understand the treatment of the pulmonary disorders of bronchitis, TB, pneumoconiosis and lung cancer;

16.6, 15.3

Spread 16.6 deals with bronchitis and pneumoconiosis, and lung cancer (see also spread 16.5 for a general account of cancer).

15.3 deals with T.B.

describe the causes and understand the treatment of arthritis and osteoporosis.

16.4 deals with arthritis and osteoporosis.

Practical work to include estimation of percentage body fat using skinfold callipers (relevant here related to hypertension and CHD).

Practical work is not covered

5.B.1 Photosynthesis

understand that photosynthesis is the synthesis of organic compounds as a result of the fixation and reduction of carbon dioxide (details of intermediate compounds and individual reactions, other than those specified, are not required);

5.1 and 5.4

5.1 gives an overview of photosynthesis; 5.4 gives a detailed account of fixation and reduction of carbon dioxide.

Leaf structure

describe the external and internal structure of a dicotyledonous leaf; the location of the palisade tissue; recall the structure of a palisade cell;

13.1

recall the structure of a chloroplast as revealed by electron microscopy; identify the envelope, stroma, grana and lamellar structure; understand the location of the chloroplast pigments;

5.1

understand the nature of the chloroplast pigments; chlorophyll a and b; carotenoids; (details of chemical formulae not required);

understand absorption and action spectra for chloroplast pigments.

5.2

Practical work to include the chromatography of chloroplast pigments.

App.

Light-dependent reaction

understand the processes of cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation in the production of reduced NADP (NADPH + H+) and ATP; the evolution of oxygen.

5.3

Light-independent reaction

understand the fixation of carbon dioxide onto a 5C compound (ribulose bisphosphate) to give phosphoglyceric acid (PGA); the use of reduced NADP and ATP from the light-dependent reaction in the synthesis of carbohydrate from PGA; the regeneration of the 5C compound.

5.4

Note that glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) = phosphoglyceric acid (PGA)

Environmental factors affecting photosynthesis

understand the effect of light intensity and wavelength, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis;

understand the concept of limiting factors; compensation point.

5.5

Effect of wavelength of light covered in spread 5.2 – see action spectrum, figure 3.

Practical work to include experiments to investigate the effects of light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis.

Practical work not covered

Mineral nutrition

appreciate uptake by roots of mineral ions; understand the function of nitrate, phosphate and magnesium ions.

Practical work to include the investigation of plant growth by mineral culture solutions.

13.8

Table 1, spread 13.8 gives the functions of nitrates, phosphates and magnesium ions.

5B.2 Control of growth in plants

recall the detection of light in flowering plants by phytochrome pigments; understand the effect of light on the growth of plants;

14.11

See also 14.12 for a description of phytochrome pigments.

understand the nature of plant growth substances; explain the effects of auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid and ethene on plant growth; understand the terms synergism and antagonism;

understand the commercial applications of auxins.

Practical work to include the effect of hormones, eg rooting powder and weed killers, on plant growth.

14.10

5B.3 Biodiversity

Classification

understand species are classified into groups using shared derived features; describe the principles and importance of taxonomy based on kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species; understand the important features of the five kingdoms.

21.1

See also 20.8 for a discussion of the species concept.

Distribution of plants and animals

understand the effects of biotic and abiotic factors on the distribution of organisms in a terrestrial and an aquatic habitat;

22.2

describe qualitative and quantitative field techniques, including different methods of sampling used to investigate the distribution of organisms in a specific terrestrial, freshwater or marine littoral habitat.

Practical work to include the study of the distribution of plants and animals in at least one habitat and investigations of the influence of abiotic factors on them.

App.

Succession

understand that ecosystems are dynamic and subject to change over time, as illustrated by the change from grassland or abandoned farmland to woodland;

describe the seral stages in a succession and explain plagio and climatic climax.

22.10

Figure 3, spread 22.10 shows ecological succession from a ploughed field (equivalent to abandoned farmland) to woodland.

Populations

understand the terms population, community, population size and density;

22.6

Community is defined in spread 22.2

understand the factors which affect population size, in relation to carrying capacity, environmental resistance, density-dependent factors and density-independent factors; explain the terms intraspecific and interspecific competition;

22.8

understand the possible effects of predator-prey relationships on population size.

22.9

The classic example of snowshoe hare and lynx is described in spread 22.9.

Practical work to include the estimation of population size using the Lincoln Index.

App.

describe how insect populations can be controlled by chemical and biological methods and discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of these methods;

23.2

explain the bioaccumulation of non-biodegradable toxins;

22.3

understand the use of integrated pest management (IPM);

23.2

Conservation

describe the management of grassland and woodland habitats to maintain or increase biodiversity as illustrated by mowing, grazing, scrub clearance, use of fire and coppicing;

22.10

Management of habitats is mentioned in relation to plagioclimaxes. See spread 23.11 for a description of coppicing and spread 23.4 and 23.5 for a discussion of sustainable development.

discuss how intensive food production may affect wildlife and explain how farming practice can enhance biodiversity

23.10

understand the significance of the EU Habitats Directive concerning the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora, and of Natura 2000.

23.11

The habitats directive is referred to but not discussed fully in 23.11.

5B.4 Genetics and evolution

understand gene expression and the environmental influences on gene expression;

19.1

recall monohybrid inheritance; understand the terms genotype and phenotype, homozygote and heterozygote, dominance and codominance;

19.3

See also 19.2 for a description of Mendel’s experiments which demonstrated dominance; Spread 19.4 includes codominance.

understand the term multiple alleles, illustrated by the ABO blood-group system (I^A, I^B, I^o alleles);

19.4

explain the inheritance of two non-interacting unlinked genes;

19.5

19.5 deals with dihybrid inheritance.

understand autosomal linkage and recombinants in relation to events of meiosis; explain gene interaction between two unlinked genes;

19.6

See Food for thought, spread 19.6 for an example of interaction between unlinked genes.

describe sex determination in humans;

Practical work to include one breeding experiment to demonstrate the principles of inheritance.

19.7

Variation

describe continuous and discontinuous variation; understand that single gene inheritance in plants and humans is associated with discontinuous variation; polygenic inheritance is associated with continuous variation.

19.1

Genes and alleles

understand gene expression and the environmental influences on gene expression;

19.1

recall monohybrid inheritance; understand the terms genotype and phenotype, homozygote and heterozygote, dominance and codominance;

19.3

See also 19.2 for a description of Mendel’s experiments which demonstrated dominance; Spread 19.4 includes codominance.

understand the term multiple alleles, illustrated by the ABO blood-group system (I^A, I^B, I^o alleles);

19.4

explain the inheritance of two non-interacting unlinked genes;

19.5

19.5 deals with dihybrid inheritance.

understand autosomal linkage and recombinants in relation to events of meiosis; explain gene interaction between two unlinked genes;

19.6

See Food for thought, spread 19.6 for an example of interaction between unlinked genes.

describe sex determination in humans;

Practical work to include one breeding experiment to demonstrate the principles of inheritance.

19.7

Sources of new inherited variation

recall the significance of meiosis and random fertilisation in sexual reproduction, in which gametes fuse to form a zygote, leading to genetic variation; understand that crossing-over leads to recombinant chromosomes;

4.12

19.6

understand the significance of mutations; describe the effects of chemical mutagens and radiation;

19.1

understand point mutations, illustrated by base deletions, insertions, substitutions; describe the effect of point mutation on amino acid sequences, as illustrated by sickle cell anaemia in humans;

19.1

See also spread 16.1 for an account of sickle cell anaemia.

understand chromosome mutations, illustrated by translocation;

understand that non-disjunction can lead to polysomy and polyploidy; Down’s syndrome.

19.1

Spread 19.9 deals with Down’s syndrome; see also spread 20.9 for polyploidy in plants.

Environmental change and evolution

understand natural selection; understand that selection pressures act on the gene pool and change allele frequency in the population; describe stabilising, directional and disruptive selection;

20.4

understand that isolating mechanisms lead to the divergence of gene pools; understand geographical and behavioural isolating mechanisms; reproductive isolation;

20.8

explain the difference between sympatric and allopatric speciation.

20.9

Gene technology

describe and understand the roles of reverse transcriptase, endonucleases and DNA ligase in the manipulation of DNA;

describe the insertion of DNA into a host cell and the multiplication of the host cell; appreciate the use of marker genes to indicate that new genes have been incorporated into host cells; understand how protein synthesis is switched on and the synthesis of a new product by the host cell as illustrated by the production of new genes into plants using the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens;

18.9

See Food for thought, spread 23.3 for a description of Agrobacterium tumefaciens

understand the production of chymosin from genetically modified yeast and its use as a substitute for mammalian rennin in the dairy industry;

17.8

Chymosin production is described in relation to cheese-making in spread 17.8.

discuss the potential of genetically modified organisms illustrated by the development of crop plants resistant to herbicides, the improvement of crop quality and the development of pharmaceutical products such as human hormones and new drugs;

23.3

18.10

18.10 deals with cloning domestic animals to produce pharmaceutical products.

discuss the social, ethical and economic implications of the development of genetically modified organisms;

23.3

GMOs are included in 23.3, but the implications of their use are not discussed fully.

understand how the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifies genetic material;

describe genetic fingerprinting as a diagnostic tool.

18.11

5.H.1 Genetics and evolution

Variation

describe continuous and discontinuous variation; understand that single gene inheritance in humans is associated with discontinuous variation; polygenic inheritance is associated with continuous variation.

19.1

Genes and alleles

understand gene expression and the environmental influences on gene expression; recall monohybrid inheritance; understand the terms genotype and phenotype, homozygotes and heterozygotes, dominance and codominance;

19.1

19.3

See also 19.2 for a description of Mendel’s experiments which demonstrated dominance.

Spread 19.4 covers codominance.

understand the term multiple alleles as illustrated by the ABO blood group system (I^A, I^B, I^o alleles);

19.4

explain the inheritance of two non-interacting unlinked genes;

19.5

19.5 deals with dihybrid inheritance.

understand autosomal linkage and recombinants in relation to events of meiosis;

19.6

See Food for thought, spread 19.6 for an example of interaction between linked genes.

explain gene interaction between two unlinked genes;

describe sex determination in humans.

Practical work to include one breeding experiment to demonstrate the principles of inheritance.

19.7

Sources of new inherited variation

understand the significance of mutations; describe the effects of chemical mutagens and radiation;

19.1

understand point mutations as illustrated by base deletions, insertions, substitutions; describe the effect of point mutation on amino acid sequences, as illustrated by sickle cell anaemia;

19.1

See also spread 16.1 for an account of sickle cell anaemia.

understand chromosome mutations as illustrated by translocation;

understand that non-disjunction can lead to polysomy and polyploidy; Down’s syndrome.

19.1

Spread 19.9 deals with Down’s syndrome; see also spread 20.9 for polyploidy in plants.

Genetic counselling

understand the risks of inherited diseases as determined from family history;

understand genetic screening and detection of fetal abnormalities by amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling;

16.1

understand and interpret karyotypes;

19.9

A karyotype of a boy with Down’s syndrome is shown in figure 1, spread 19.9. It is a representation of the chromosomes in a typical body cell, with individual mitotic chromosomes arranged in pairs in order of size. There are normally 23 pairs of chromosomes. Note that the last pair of chromosomes are the XY chromosomes, and are of unequal size.

describe possible courses of action, termination of pregnancy, treatment;

recognise the potential for gene therapy;

discuss social, ethical and legal implications.

Practical work to include the preparation of a karyotype from a print of human metaphase chromosomes.

19.10

In 19.10, gene therapy is considered in relation to cystic fibrosis. The implications are not fully discussed; students are advised to consult newspapers and science magazines such as the New Scientist for up-to-date discussions.

Environmental change and evolution

understand natural selection; understand that selection pressures act on the gene pool and change the allele frequency in the population;

stabilising, directional and disruptive selection;

understand that isolating mechanisms lead to the divergence of gene pools; understand geographical and behavioural isolating mechanisms; reproductive isolation;

explain the difference between sympatric and allopatric speciation.

Gene technology

describe and understand the roles of reverse transcriptase, endonucleases and DNA ligase in the manipulation of DNA;

describe the insertion of DNA into a host cell and the multiplication of the host cell; appreciate the use of marker genes to indicate that new genes have been incorporated into host cells; understand how protein synthesis is switched on and the synthesis of new product by the host cell as illustrated by the production of new genes into plants using the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens;

18.9

See Food for thought, spread 23.3 for a description of Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

understand the production of chymosin from genetically modified yeast and its use as a substitute for mammalian rennin in the dairy industry;

17.8

Chymosin production is described in relation to cheese-making in spread 17.8.

discuss the potential of genetically modified organisms, illustrated by the development of crop plants resistant to herbicides, the improvement of crop quality and the development of pharmaceutical products such as human hormones and new drugs;

23.3

18.10

18.10 deals with cloning domestic animals to produce pharmaceutical products.

discuss the social, ethical and economic implications of the development of genetically modified organisms;

23.3

GMOs are included in 23.3, but the implications of their use are not discussed fully.

understand how the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifies genetic material;

describe genetic fingerprinting as a diagnostic tool.

18.11

5H.2 Human evolution

Humans as primates

describe the range of form in primates illustrated by lemurs, old and new world monkeys, apes and humans.

20.10

Figure 2, spread 20.10 shows the range in form in primates.

Evidence for human evolution

describe the phylogenetic relationships of hominoids, illustrated by evidence from the following: comparative anatomy of skull and skeleton (details of individual bones are not required); fossils and geochronology with reference to comparing and dating fossil material; immunological studies of blood sera; amino acid sequences;

20.11

Geochronology (the science of dealing with the measurement of time in relation to the Earth’s evolution) and immunological studies of blood sera, and comparison of amino acid sequences,, are included in 20.2.

DNA hybridisation and base sequences.

20.12

Food for thought, spread 20.12 refers to DNA hybridisation.

Hominoid evolution

describe the divergence of apes and hominids from a common ancestor; the possible influence of climate and habitat change on the evolution of hominid features;

describe the Australopithecines and their possible relationships to Homo.

20.12

Evolution of Homo

describe the main features of Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens and Neanderthal man; changes in the skeleton, skull and brain development; bipedalism and evolution of the hand.

20.11 and 20.12

20.11 refers to the evolution of bipedalism.

See also 20.13 for a description of trends in human evolution.

Palaeolithic

describe Homo habilis; tool making, development of brain, speech and language; sexual bonding and extended childhood;

describe Homo erectus; development of hunting and the use of fire;

20.12

describe Homo sapiens, Neanderthal man, Cro-Magnon man and the Upper Paleolithic cultures; development of flint knapping and cave painting; foundation of religious beliefs and practices.

20.13

Neolithic

describe the development of agriculture and settled communities;

domestication of animals.

20.13

5H.3 Human populations

World trends in population size

understand the factors affecting the growth and size of human populations; variations in fertility; birth and death rates;

demographic trends.

22.7

See also 22.6 for a general account of population growth.

Population structure

understand growth curves and population pyramids in countries with stable, increasing and declining populations;

describe the implications of world population trends.

22.7

5H.4 Biodiversity

Distribution of plants and animals

understand the effects of abiotic and biotic factors on the distribution of organisms in a terrestrial and an aquatic habitat;

22.2

describe qualitative and quantitative field techniques, including different methods of sampling used to investigate the distribution of organisms in a specific terrestrial, freshwater or marine littoral habitat.

Practical work to include the study of the distribution of plants and animals in at least one habitat with investigations of the effects of abiotic and biotic factors on them.

App.

Succession

understand that ecosystems are dynamic and subject to change over time, as illustrated by the change from grassland or abandoned farmland to woodland;

describe the seral stages in a succession and explain plagio and climatic climax.

22.10

Figure 3, spread 22.10 shows the ecological succession from a ploughed field (equivalent to abandoned farm land) to woodland.

Control of insect pests

describe how insect populations can be controlled by chemical and biological methods and discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of these methods;

explain the bioaccumulation of non-biodegradable toxins;

understand the use of integrated pest management (IPM).

23.2

23.2 includes biological and chemical control of pests, and

Bioaccumulation of DDT) is described in spread 22.3

Conservation

describe the management of grassland and woodland habitats to maintain or increase biodiversity, as illustrated by mowing, grazing, scrub clearance, use of fire and coppicing;

22.10

Management of habitats is mentioned in relation to plagioclimax. See spread 23.11 for a description of coppicing, and spreads 23.4 and 23.5 for sustainable developments.

discuss how intensive food production may affect wildlife and explain how farming practice can enhance biodiversity;

23.10

understand the significance of the EU Habitats Directive concerning the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora and of Natura 2000.

23.11

The habitats directive is referred to, but not discussed fully, in 23.11.